Edexcel GCSE Psychology: Criminal Psychology
Topic 6: Criminal Psychology — Why do people become criminals?
Paper 2 | Optional | 21 marks
This topic explores two contrasting explanations of criminality — one rooted in learning and the environment, the other in biology and personality. It also looks at how punishment and rehabilitation programmes can reduce reoffending. Criminal psychology is one of the most applied areas of the specification, with direct relevance to the justice system.
Learning theories as an explanation of criminality
Operant conditioning (Skinner, 1948)
Operant conditioning proposes that behaviour is shaped by its consequences. If a behaviour leads to a rewarding outcome it is more likely to be repeated; if it leads to an unpleasant outcome it is less likely. Applied to criminality, this suggests that crime is learned and maintained through reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement occurs when something rewarding is given after a behaviour, making it more likely to recur. A thief who gains money from stealing receives positive reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement occurs when a behaviour removes something unpleasant. Someone may commit a violent act to remove a perceived threat.
Positive punishment occurs when something unpleasant is added to deter a behaviour. Prison adds restriction and loss of freedom.
Negative punishment occurs when something desirable is removed to deter behaviour. Fines and loss of privileges are examples.
Skinner also distinguished between primary reinforcers (satisfying basic biological needs such as food) and secondary reinforcers (things that have acquired value through association with primary reinforcers, such as money or status).
Evaluation
One strength is that operant conditioning explains a wide range of criminal behaviour, including why crime can be attractive in environments where it is rewarded with status or peer approval.
One weakness is that not all crime can be explained by reinforcement. Crimes motivated by emotion, ideology or impulsivity are harder to account for, and the theory does not consider the role of biology or personality.
Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977)
Bandura proposed that behaviour is learned not only through direct reinforcement but through observing and imitating others — known as observational learning. We are most likely to imitate role models, people we admire or with whom we identify.
The process involves four stages: attention (noticing the behaviour), retention (remembering it), reproduction (imitating it) and motivation (being driven to imitate because the behaviour was rewarded).
Vicarious reinforcement occurs when a person observes a role model being rewarded and becomes more likely to imitate that behaviour without being directly rewarded themselves. Identification is the process of adopting the attitudes and behaviours of a role model or group.
Evaluation
One strength is that Social Learning Theory explains why criminal behaviour tends to cluster within families and social groups, where children learn from criminal role models.
One weakness is that not everyone exposed to criminal role models becomes a criminal. Individual differences in personality and biology are not accounted for.
Biological explanations of criminality
Genetic explanations
Some researchers propose that criminal behaviour has a genetic basis. The MAOA gene (sometimes called the warrior gene) has been linked to aggressive and risk-taking behaviour. Twin studies show that monozygotic (identical) twins have higher concordance rates for criminal behaviour than dizygotic (non-identical) twins, suggesting a genetic contribution.
Eysenck's personality theory (1964)
Hans Eysenck proposed that certain personality types are more prone to criminality, measured using the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) across three dimensions known as the PEN model.
Extraversion (E): high extraverts are outgoing and sensation-seeking. Eysenck argued their nervous systems have low baseline arousal, making them seek stimulation through risk-taking and potentially criminal activity.
Neuroticism (N): those high in neuroticism have nervous systems that react quickly and intensely to stress, making them prone to emotional overreaction and impulsive behaviour.
Psychoticism (P): high psychoticism involves coldness, lack of empathy and antisocial tendencies. This dimension has the strongest link to criminal behaviour.
Eysenck argued that people with high scores on all three dimensions are prone to criminality because their nervous systems make them harder to condition through punishment — they seek stimulation, overreact emotionally and lack empathy.
Evaluation
One strength is that Farrington et al. (1982) found offenders tended to score higher on psychoticism and neuroticism than non-offenders, providing empirical support for the theory.
One weakness is that the theory is reductionist, reducing complex criminal behaviour to personality traits and ignoring social factors such as poverty, peer pressure and life events.
A further weakness is that evidence relies heavily on self-report questionnaires (the EPQ), which may not be reliable if offenders present themselves in a socially desirable way.
The effects of punishment on recidivism
Recidivism refers to reoffending after being caught and punished. A key question in criminal psychology is whether punishment actually reduces reoffending.
Prison
Prison works as a form of negative punishment (removing freedom) and as a deterrent to potential offenders. It also aims to rehabilitate offenders through education and therapy.
One strength is that prison protects the public by removing dangerous offenders from society. One weakness is that reoffending rates remain high — around half of UK prisoners reoffend within a year — and prison can expose offenders to more experienced criminals.
Community sentencing
Community sentencing requires offenders to serve their sentence through unpaid work and treatment programmes in the community rather than in prison. Curfews may also be imposed.
One strength is that offenders maintain employment and family connections, which are protective factors against reoffending. One weakness is that recidivism rates remain over 30% and more than 10% of offenders fail to complete their community sentence.
Restorative justice
Restorative justice brings offenders and victims together (or communicates through a mediator) to allow the victim to explain the impact of the crime and for the offender to take responsibility and make amends where possible.
One strength is that some research shows it reduces reoffending more effectively than traditional punishment, and victims often find it more helpful for their recovery. A Ministry of Justice review found it more cost-effective than managing reoffending. One weakness is that it requires willing participation from both parties and is not suitable for all crimes or victims.
Treatments to rehabilitate offenders
Token economy programmes
Token economy programmes apply operant conditioning principles within a prison setting. Prisoners receive tokens (secondary reinforcers) for prosocial behaviour such as cooperating with staff and completing work. These tokens can be exchanged for privileges such as phone calls, extra television time or food treats (primary reinforcers).
One strength is that Hobbs and Holt (1976) found short-term increases in prosocial behaviour in prisons using token economies compared to a control prison. One weakness is that similar reward systems do not exist outside prison, so behaviour improvements are unlikely to transfer beyond the prison walls.
Anger management programmes
Anger management is designed for offenders whose crimes stemmed from poor anger control. It takes place in three stages:
Cognitive preparation: the offender reflects on their anger, identifying triggers and understanding why it leads to counterproductive behaviour.
Skills acquisition: the offender learns techniques to control anger, such as breathing exercises and cognitive reframing.
Application practice: the offender practises new skills by role-playing anger-triggering situations in a safe, controlled environment.
One strength is that anger management addresses the psychological roots of violent behaviour. One weakness is that it is not appropriate for crimes motivated by financial gain or opportunism, limiting its scope as a rehabilitation tool.
Key studies
Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961) — Transmission of Aggression through Imitation of Aggressive Models
Aim: to investigate whether children would imitate the aggressive behaviour of an adult role model, and whether same-sex models would be imitated more.
Procedure: 72 children aged 3 to 6 were divided into groups. Some observed an adult behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll; others observed a non-aggressive adult; a control group observed no adult. Models were either male or female. Children were then mildly frustrated and placed with a Bobo doll, and their behaviour was observed.
Results: children who observed the aggressive model showed significantly more aggression than those in other conditions. Boys showed more physical aggression. Children were more likely to imitate same-sex role models.
Conclusion: aggressive behaviour can be learned through observation and imitation, supporting Social Learning Theory.
Strengths: controlled laboratory conditions allow cause and effect to be established. The inclusion of a control group strengthens the conclusions.
Weaknesses: the sample of young children from a university nursery limits generalisability. Hitting an inflatable doll differs from real-world violence, reducing ecological validity. Ethical concerns exist around deliberately exposing children to aggressive behaviour.
Charlton et al. (2000) — Children's Playground Behaviour Across Five Years of Broadcast Television
Aim: to investigate the effect of television introduction on children's playground behaviour on the remote island of St Helena.
Procedure: children's playground behaviour in two primary schools was filmed in 1994, before television arrived on the island. Five years later, in 1999, the same filming and coding process was repeated. Behaviour was coded for both prosocial and antisocial acts.
Results: nine significant differences were found. Five were declines in prosocial behaviour, two were increases in prosocial behaviour, and two were decreases in antisocial behaviour. Crucially, there was no significant increase in antisocial behaviour following the introduction of television.
Conclusion: television introduction did not cause increased antisocial behaviour, challenging assumptions about the direct impact of media on children's aggression.
Strengths: the naturalistic design means children behaved naturally without awareness of being observed. The real-world community setting improves ecological validity.
Weaknesses: the highly specific sample of children on a remote island makes generalisation very difficult. Observer coding may have introduced bias, affecting reliability.
Key terms
Recidivism: reoffending after having been caught and punished for a crime.
Operant conditioning: learning through the consequences of behaviour, through reinforcement or punishment.
Positive reinforcement: adding something rewarding to increase a behaviour.
Negative reinforcement: removing something unpleasant to increase a behaviour.
Positive punishment: adding something unpleasant to decrease a behaviour.
Negative punishment: removing something desirable to decrease a behaviour.
Primary reinforcer: something that satisfies a basic biological need, such as food.
Secondary reinforcer: something that has acquired value through association with a primary reinforcer, such as money or tokens.
Social Learning Theory: the idea that behaviour is learned through observing and imitating role models.
Observational learning: learning new behaviours by watching others.
Role model: a person we admire or identify with, whose behaviour we are likely to imitate.
Vicarious reinforcement: becoming more likely to imitate a behaviour after seeing a role model rewarded for it.
Identification: adopting the attitudes and behaviours of a role model or group.
Extraversion: a personality dimension associated with outgoing, sensation-seeking behaviour.
Neuroticism: a personality dimension associated with emotional instability and overreaction to stress.
Psychoticism: a personality dimension associated with coldness, lack of empathy and antisocial tendencies.
EPQ: the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, used to measure personality on the PEN dimensions.
Token economy programme: a rehabilitation programme in which prisoners earn tokens for prosocial behaviour that can be exchanged for privileges.
Anger management: a three-stage rehabilitation programme helping offenders manage violent anger through cognitive preparation, skills acquisition and application practice.
Restorative justice: a process in which offenders and victims meet to allow the victim to explain the impact of the crime and the offender to take responsibility.
Community sentencing: serving a sentence through unpaid work or treatment programmes in the community rather than in prison.
Looking for revision resources for this topic? The Criminal Psychology Knowledge Organiser covers all of the above in a format designed for efficient revision.